Therapeutic device and method for treating diseases of cardiac muscle

ABSTRACT

An apparatus and method for conferring a therapeutic current on the heart and adjacent vasculature from externally positioned electrodes is provided. The apparatus includes a first electrode, a second electrode and a current generator. The method includes applying an electric stimulus to the heart and maintaining the timing and/or level of current to prevent unwanted depolarization.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/638,233 filed Aug. 14, 2000, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/143,510 filed Aug. 24, 1999. The above-referenced Patent and Provisional Applications are incorporated by reference in the present application in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] 1. Field of the Invention

[0003] The present invention relates to an apparatus and method for treatment of the heart and, more particularly, to an apparatus and method providing a therapeutic sub-threshold electrical current to the heart and adjacent vasculature from externally positioned electrodes.

[0004] 2. Discussion of the Related Art

[0005] A wide range of therapies is available for the treatment of cardiac tissue damage, heart failure and for treatment of the specific underlying disease processes. Most of these therapies may be classified as drugs, surgical intervention, or cardiac assist devices. The cardiac assist devices assist the heart in pumping function to relieve the heart of stresses during the healing process. If a condition is caused by coronary disease or is exacerbated by conduction defects, available therapies include either bypass surgery or angioplasty in the case of the former, or pacemaker therapy in the case of the latter. The above-mentioned damage and diseases as well as other factors set in motion the condition known as congestive heart failure (CHF). Although therapies have addressed treating specific indications, few therapies address the problem of tissue remodeling.

[0006] Tissue remodeling refers to the histological alteration of tissue over time. Remodeling may include histological and/or biochemical changes at the tissue, cellular and molecular levels. Tissue remodeling can be either beneficial or degenerative to a patient. Tissue remodeling is degenerative when histologically and/or biochemically normal tissue is altered in such a way that the tissue no longer functions properly. Degenerative tissue remodeling may occur progressively in patients suffering from congestive heart failure or atrial fibrillation. In those patients, the resulting remodeling adversely affects the heart's performance and exacerbates the deteriorating condition of the heart. Tissue remodeling is beneficial when a histologically and/or biochemically abnormal tissue is reverted to a more normal histology and/or biochemistry.

[0007] Recently, one aspect of degenerative remodeling due to the progression of CHF has been identified as the breakdown in the collagen of the extra-cellular matrix. The extra-cellular matrix is the external structure between the cells in the heart that primarily consists of a matrix of type I collagen and fibrils. This matrix is connected to the cytoskeletal myofibrils within the myocardial cells. The matrix provides tensile strength to the tissue, governs the tissue's stiffness, and preserves the alignment of the myocardial cells. Abnormalities in the matrix's composition and concentration during dilation, hypertrophy and ischemic injury inhibit the function of the heart and may lead to heart failure.

[0008] Endogenous factors regulate the breakdown and/or re-establishment of collagen and other extra-cellular matrix components. These endogenous factors are diverse and their functions and structures are the subject of much research. The endogenous factors include a family of enzymes known as the matrix metalloproteinases. The matrix metalloproteinases catalyze a reaction breaking down the extra-cellular matrix. The enzymatic activity of the matrix metalloproteinases is countered by a set of proteins known as the tissue inhibitors of the matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The TIMPs inhibit the enzymatic activity of the matrix metalloproteinases. The matrix metalloproteinase:TIMP ratio is typically around 1.1:1.0 in a normal heart. Hearts in the end stage of CHF may be around 6:1 or 7:1. Research has shown that the interruption of matrix metalloproteinases with pharmaceutical agents reduces chamber dilation in animal models for CHF. Relatedly, this research has shown an overall increase in the collagen content due to the treatments.

[0009] In addition, the inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases and, presumably, the subsequent increase in collagen have been shown to result in the beneficial remodeling of treated diseased hearts. Interruption of matrix metalloproteinases with drug therapy has been shown to reduce chamber dilation in CHF animal models. However, drug therapy for inhibiting matrix metalloproteinases may present potentially serious problems. The systemic inhibition of the matrix metalloproteinases has been found to produce a variety of side effects, such as joint and muscle pain. Therefore, a need exists for a therapy that specifically targets the desired tissue or organ to be treated.

[0010] Another aspect of degenerative remodeling is ischemic cardiomyopathy. In ischemic cardiomyopathy, a loss of blood flow or ischemia to a portion of the heart muscle causes not just weakness or scarring to that portion, but subsequently a progression to chamber dilation and failure. The loss of blood flow may be the result of arteriosclerosis, other cardiac diseases, or injury, which can result in a partial or complete blocking of blood flow to a region of the heart.

[0011] The limited blood flow may result in localized tissue death known as an infarction. The presence of an infarction weakens contraction in that region and therefore degrades the heart's performance. To compound the problem, the myocardial tissue adjacent to the infarction typically receives a reduced blood flow and, therefore, exhibits reduced contractility. The zone receiving the reduced blood flow is known as an ischemic zone. The ischemic zone further inhibits the hearts ability to contract. Further, the elevation of matrix metalloproteinases, reduction in TIMPs, and consequent degradation of collagen may play an additional role in ischemic cardiomyopathy. To improve cardiac output in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathies, there is a need to re-establish blood flow to the ischemic zones.

[0012] Re-establishing blood flow to the ischemic zone has been shown to improve cardiac function. Re-establishing blood flow may be accomplished through angiogenesis in which the body generates additional blood vessels in a particular region. Prior methods for re-establishing blood flow and rehabilitating the heart frequently involved invasive surgery such as bypass surgery or angioplasty. Other methods have used lasers to bore holes through the infarctions and ischemic zones to promote blood flow. These surgeries are complicated and dangerous. Therefore, a need exists for a safe non-invasive method for re-establishing blood flow.

[0013] As alternatives to surgery, various chemical and biological agents have been developed that promote angiogenesis. Genetic engineering has played a significant role in the development of many of these new agents. However, in practice, direct injection of these angiogenic agents fails to specifically target the ischemic zone. Further, injection of genetic material within a vector is a more biologically complex process and frequently suffers from a low transfection efficiency. In addition, the introduction of xenobiotics compounds can be dangerous. The compound itself may be toxic, virulent and/or allergenic. Therefore, a need exists for a therapy for promoting angiogenesis that is efficient and does not introduce xenobiotics into a patient. In addition, many of the drugs prescribed for CHF patients are primarily for palliative or symptomatic relief. These drugs typically do not treat the underlying disease process of CHF and their use frequently results in serious or prohibitive side effects. Further, the drugs are typically administered systemically and therefore, impact the entire body not just the organ or tissue to be treated. Therefore, a need exists for a therapy capable of promoting overall remodeling without inducing unwanted side effects.

[0014] Atrial fibrillation is another serious condition in which degenerative tissue remodeling also plays a significant role. As in CHF and coronary ischemic disease, early theories on the cause of atrial fibrillation suggested that its causes may be multi-factorial, but the onset of degenerative tissue remodeling exacerbates atrial fibrillation.

[0015] The promotion of healing with electric current stimulation has been recognized in medicine for many years. Most commonly, electricity is used to promote bone union in fractures that have proven refractory to normal healing. The devices used have directly applied the current to the skin over the fracture. Alternatively, other devices use pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) to promote healing. Alternatively, other devices have utilized pulsed electromagnetic fields that do not require direct skin contact. However, the use of externally applied electric current directed toward the heart have not been used due to the obvious risk of artificially inducing a contraction or provoking an arrhythmia. Therefore, a need exists for safely administering an electric current externally while minimizing the risk of inducing an abnormal contraction or arrhythmia.

[0016] Electrical stimulation of cardiac tissues has also been utilized to treat various conditions of the heart. Pacemakers provide electrical stimulation above the contraction threshold to treat various arrhythmias. Further, sub-threshold stimulation currents have been used to extend the cardiac tissue's refractory period in the treatment of tachycardia and to increase contractility in the cardiac muscle. However, sub-threshold stimuli have not been broadly applied to the heart and adjacent blood vessels to promote healing and tissue remodeling.

[0017] Providing electric current stimulation of ischemic zones on the heart has recently been shown to promote angiogenesis and further, electric current stimulation has been shown to increase collagen type I production in cultured cells. However, as mentioned above, directly or indirectly applying electrical stimulation to the heart can be dangerous. There is a risk of inducing a depolarization of the cardiac tissue resulting in an unwanted cardiac contraction. Further, there is a risk of inducing a life-threatening arrhythmia. Therefore, a need exists to provide a method and apparatus that reduces the risks of providing an electrical stimulation to the heart to promote angiogenesis, to increase collagen type I production in cultured cells, and to potentially promote other aspects of beneficial remodeling.

[0018] Further, implanting electrodes and sensors into a patient includes certain risks and inconveniences to the patient. Therefore, it is desirable to have an external method to provide an electrical stimulus to the heart. However, such external stimulation using prior methods is accompanied by an inordinate amount of risk. One reason for the risk is the inability of prior methods to accurately assess the field strength generated in the region of the heart. Significant variation in body types and sizes exists between patients. A particular stimulus level may be safe when applied to one patient, and yet that same stimulus may evoke an unwanted reaction from another patient. Another risk is the artifact created by externally applied stimulus may which may disrupt sensing and activation of an implanted pacing or defibrillation devices. The disruption could result in stimulation at a high-risk portion of the cardiac cycle, or an undesirable or unnecessary defibrillation shock. Further, external methods may be vulnerable to environmental interference. Therefore, a need exists for an apparatus and method capable of providing a safe therapeutic external stimulus to the heart.

[0019] In addition, applying a therapeutic stimulus from implanted electrodes placed in or on the heart results in highly localized sub-threshold stimulation. The localization of the therapy in some cases may not be optimal such as when the entire heart or a large region of the heart requires treatment. Thus, a need exists for a method and apparatus capable of providing the largest amount of diseased tissue with a therapeutic current, while simultaneously keeping the maximum stimulus level below a safe threshold throughout the heart.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0020] The apparatus and method of the present invention meet the above needs. The apparatus and method use therapeutic current stimulation that optimizes safety and therapeutic benefit in treating cardiac tissue and the vasculature adjacent the heart. The apparatus for remodeling a heart includes a first electrode, a second electrode and a current generator. The electrodes are positioned externally on the patient to provide a sub-threshold therapeutic stimulus to the patient's heart or the vasculature adjacent the patient's heart. The electrodes may be configured as a patch electrode having an adhesive for external application. The apparatus may further include one or more sensors communicating information on field strengths and/or intrinsic electric current to a controller. The sensors may be configured for external application, placement within the esophagus or implantation in or on the heart. The controller is configured to regulate the output from the current generator. The sensor may monitor the depolarization of the heart and the controller synchronizes the sub-threshold therapeutic electrical stimulation from the current generator with a cycle of the heart. The controllers synchronization may apply the electrical stimulation during the refractory period of the cardiac cycle. Alternatively or in addition, the sensor may monitor the field strength at a location in or near the heart generated between the first electrode and the second electrode. When monitoring field strength, the controller maintains the sub-threshold therapeutic electrical stimulation from the current generator at a level below a stimulation threshold of the heart. A cardiac defibrillator may also be provided. The defibrillator adds an extra margin of safety. Further, the apparatus may be integral and/or in communication with a cardiac pacemaker. In addition, the apparatus may utilize the pacemaker's or defibrillator's electrodes implanted within the patient to eliminate the need for additional implantation surgery.

[0021] The method of the present invention provides cardiac therapy to the heart and adjacent vasculature. The method includes sensing a cardiac cycle to determine the refractory period and applying a stimulus to the heart during the refractory period and/or applying a sub-threshold stimulus to the heart and measuring the field strength generated by applying the sub-threshold stimulus to maintain the field strength below the heart's depolarization threshold.

[0022] The invention provides many advantages. The present invention provides the heart and adjacent vasculature with a safe therapeutic current to promote healing of diseased or inflamed tissue. The external application of current provides a more uniform current density than electrodes implanted in or on the heart. The invention mitigates the concerns relating to the external application of therapeutic current to the heart, including but not limited to the concerns of uncontrolled or dangerous current level and the possible dangerous asynchronous application of current with respect to the cardiac cycle. The invention reduces the number or eliminates the need for implanted sensors. The apparatus and method allow for long-term treatment for remodeling the heart while minimizing the risk of damaging tissue. Further, the present invention provides additional improvements and advantages that will be evident to those skilled in the art upon review of the specification and figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023]FIG. 1 illustrates an apparatus in accordance with the present invention;

[0024]FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an embodiment of an apparatus in accordance with the present invention; and

[0025]FIG. 3 illustrates the positioning of electrodes in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0026] The present invention is described generally as a therapy for promoting remodeling of a patient's heart. Those skilled in the art will recognize the improvements and advantages conferred by the present invention in the treatment of heart disease and heart failure, the specific etiologies including, but not limited to, ischemic cardiomyopathy, idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, other cardiomyopathies, myocarditis and atrial fibrillation.

[0027] An apparatus 10 in accordance with the present invention is shown in FIG. 1. Apparatus 10 includes a current generator 12, a first electrode 14, a second electrode 16, a sensor 18, and a controller 20. First electrode 14 and second electrode 16 are configured to be externally positioned about the patient and are typically connected to current generator 12 by an insulated conductive wire. Typically, the electrodes are patch electrodes configured to be adhesively secured to the skin of a patient. Current generator 12 is configured to provide a sub-threshold stimulus through a heart positioned between first electrode 14 and second electrode 16. Current generator 12 is configured to allow the adjustment of one or more parameters of the output current. One or more sensors 18 are configured to sense the depolarizations of the heart and/or the electric field strength in or near the heart resulting from current from current generator 12. The sensors may be configured for external placement on or in the patient's skin or within the patient's esophagus or trachea, as shown in FIG. 3. Alternatively, sensors 18 may be implantable such that the sensors may be positioned in, on or around the heart, also shown in FIG. 3. Sensors 18 are in communication with controller 20, either directly by wire or through a telemetry link, to confer information indicative of the heart's cycle. Sensor 18, shown in FIG. 1, is connected to controller 20 by a wire 19 within a lead body for exemplary purposes only. When fully implanted, sensor 18 may include a battery power source and electronics. Further, sensor 18 may be integral with a cardiac lead attached to a conventional cardiac pacemaker or defibrillator. The cardiac pacemaker/defibrillator will typically house the battery power source and electronics. Controller 20 is also in communication with current generator 12, either directly by wire or through a telemetry link. Controller 20, shown in FIG. 1, is integral with current generator 12 for exemplary purposes only. Controller 20 is configured to adjust at least one of the various parameters of the current generator's output sub-threshold electrical stimulus and/or to switch the current generator on and off based on input from sensors 18.

[0028] When sensor 18 is integral with an implanted pacing apparatus as shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, controller 20 can be implanted within the patient. In this configuration, controller 20 may also be integral, both electronically and/or physically, with the implanted pacing or defibrillation apparatus. The embodiment shown in FIG. 2 includes a sensor 18, an amplifier 26, an analog to digital (A/D) converter 28, a controller 20, a transmitter 21, an implanted antenna 22, an external antenna 23, a receiver 24, and a current generator 12. The configuration shown in FIG. 2 permits the amplification and digital conversion of the analog data sensed by sensor 18. The digital data is received and analyzed by controller 20. Controller 20 determines the appropriate therapeutic current based on the sensed data and the particular therapy being implemented. Controller 20 then communicates a controlling signal through a transmitter 21 to a receiver 24 and finally to current generator 12. Based on the controlling signal, current generator 12 implements the appropriate current levels, frequency output and/or timing. Sensor 18 may be secured to an endocardial lead and positioned in the right ventricle of the heart, or it may be part of a coronary lead or epicardial lead. In such a configuration, implanted sensor 18 senses cardiac cycle and/or field strengths of signals resulting from the intrinsic electrical activity and therapeutic current, and these signals are provided to controller 20 through the signal path of amplifier 26 and A/D converter 28. This information allows controller 20 to maintain the current from current generator 12 at safe but efficacious levels. Alternatively, controller 20 may be external, receiving data from implanted sensors from implanted transmitter 21 with only minor modifications in the configuration of the implanted controller embodiment described above.

[0029] When sensor 18 communicates with controller 20 using telemetry, external antenna 23, typically an adhesive loop antenna, may be positioned on the patient adjacent implanted transmitter antenna 22. Typically, external antenna 23 is positioned and configured in a manner so as to best receive the telemetered data from implanted transmitter antenna 22. Thereby, external antenna 23 communicates the sensed data to controller 20. Controller 20 then uses the data to regulate the output stimulus from current generator 12. Thus, apparatus 10 utilizes sensor 18 to monitor the electric field strength created by current generator 12 and/or to monitor the patient's intrinsic heart rhythm. Through measurement of either or both of these parameters, controller 20 directs current generator 12 to provide a safe and efficacious sub-threshold stimulus therapy.

[0030] As illustrated in FIG. 3, first electrode 14 and second electrode 16 are configured for external placement about a patient's heart. The electrodes may be adhesively attached to the patient's skin or may be surgically placed sub-cutaneously. The electrodes 14 and 16 are positioned on a patient so that when a current passes between the electrodes 14 and 16 the current passes through the region of the heart requiring therapy. Electrodes 14 and 16 can be configured to target therapeutic stimulation to localized targets on the heart or may be configured to target therapeutic stimulation to a large portion or the entire heart. In addition, electrodes 14 and 16 may be configured to direct therapeutic stimulation to the vasculature adjacent to the heart. Typically, first electrode 14 is placed over the sternum, and second electrode 16 is placed on the patient's back opposite the first electrode, as shown in FIG. 3.

[0031] Therapy using apparatus 10 may utilize a broad range of currents. The particular current used may be optimized to preferentially stimulate a cell-initiated angiogenic response, to promote collagen type I production and/or to stimulate another aspect of beneficial remodeling. Current generator 12 typically provides drive currents in the range of tens of milliamperes. The drive current may be between 1 to 100 milliamperes although higher drive currents may be used. As discussed above, since the field strength resulting from the current in or near the heart is assessed, and the external drive current needed to achieve a given field strength will vary from patient to patient. Generally, patches on the order of 10 centimeter by 10 centimeter may be used to realize a substantially uniform trans-thoracic current density. For example, using 10 centimeter by 10 centimeter patch electrodes and applying a 10 milliampere current, a current density within the tissue directly beneath the patch electrodes is 0.1 milliampere/cm². However, the current path will broaden throughout the thorax before returning to the posterior patch, and thus, the current density throughout the heart may be less than 0.1 milliamperes/cm² in this example. The particular current density within the heart will vary from patient to patient for a given applied current, due to the individual patient's physical characteristics. Thus, measuring the resultant field strength will allow a consistent and known therapeutic field strength to be delivered.

[0032] Apparatus 10 may utilize either a direct current (DC) or an alternating current (AC). When AC current is used, a wide range of frequencies may be utilized with particular frequencies being tailored to particular therapies. Typically, the sinusoidal frequencies used are between 2 Hz and 200 Hz, although higher sinusoidal frequencies in the range of tens of kilohertz may be utilized. For example, the application of a frequency of around 20 hertz has been shown to be efficacious in increasing expression of Type 1 collagen, while higher frequencies have been shown to be efficacious in promoting angiogenesis. Alternatively, pulsed fields have proven efficacious in promoting angiogenesis. Pulsed waveforms typically result in higher frequency components. When lower frequencies are utilized the control algorithm implemented by controller 20 compensates for the lower depolarization thresholds resultant from the lower frequencies.

[0033] In one embodiment of current application, the current is applied to the heart during the refractory period. Since the heart is refractory, a relatively high current density may be administered. In this embodiment, the heart's intrinsic electrical activity is sensed to identify the initiation of a depolarization event. For example, upon sensing a depolarization event, the therapeutic current may be applied for a pre-determined period, typically 200 milliseconds, generally coincident with the heart's refractory period. To facilitate the timing of the current, the depolarization of the heart (QRS) may be sensed from endocardial sensors, external sensors or by other methods that will be recognized by those skilled in the art. Upon sensing the initiation of depolarization for example, a sinusoidal burst of a 20 Hz waveform may be applied for 200 milliseconds. Since the heart will not activate during the refractory period, the current density may be, for example, 1.0 milliampere/cm² or higher.

[0034] In another embodiment for current application, the therapeutic current is applied continuously at a constant level below stimulation threshold without regard to the heart's cycle. A field strength is selected that is below the stimulation threshold of the myocardial tissue. For example, using the 20 Hz sinusoidal waveform, an externally 200 microampereS/cm² current density may provide an electric field strength within the heart of around 80 mV/cm.

[0035] In yet another embodiment for current application, the stimulus amplitude may be dynamically modified with respect to the cardiac cycle. Typically, the current density may be relatively large during the refractory period and drop to a sub-threshold level outside of the heart's refractory period. Thus, the heart's cycle is monitored as described above. Upon detection of a depolarization event, the current density is increased during a predetermined window. At the conclusion of a window, typically 200 milliseconds, the current is then lowered to a pre-determined level below the depolarization threshold of the subject heart.

[0036] Sensors 18 may monitor the electric field strength created by current generator 12 and/or monitor the patient's intrinsic heart rhythm. This monitoring facilitates the safe application of the therapeutic current. The sensed field waveform and/or the patient's intrinsic cardiac biopotentials are communicated to controller 20 to regulate current generator 12. Thus, apparatus 10 mitigates the danger of uncontrolled or dangerous current levels and/or asynchronous application of therapeutic current with respect to the cardiac cycle. The following embodiments for sensor 18 are provided for exemplary purposes. Upon review of the present disclosure, those skilled in the art will recognize that a variety of additional sensor configurations may be used to monitor the depolarization of the heart and/or to measure field strength in accordance with the present invention.

[0037] In one embodiment, sensor 18 is a pair of electrodes secured to a cardiac lead. The lead is connected to a pacemaker or defibrillator lead system. The electrodes are configured to monitor the field strength generated by current generator 12. To measure the field strength, the electrodes may be aligned substantially along a line or axis formed between the two external drive electrodes. Typically, the axis connecting sensors 18 lie within 30 degrees of the drive electrodes' axis. Alternatively, if sensors 18 are at any given known or measured angle with respect to the drive electrode axis, the maximum magnitude of field strength can be calculated by dividing the measured value by the cosine of this angle. The electrodes of sensor 18 are electrically coupled to amplifier 26. Amplifier 26 is configured with a bandwidth suitable to recover the frequency of the therapeutic current being administered. The amplified signal is converted to a digital signal by the A/D converter 28. A/D converter 28 then communicates the signal to controller 20. The therapeutic waveform may be recovered separated from any noise and biopotentials in the signal using synchronous demodulation or other techniques that will be recognized by those skilled in the art. The peak or RMS value of the signal received may be calculated using appropriate gain factors to account for the degree of amplification. The voltage value may then be divided by the sense electrode spacing to calculate the electric field strength. If the sensor is in the blood, the myocardial field strength may be calculated by multiplying the blood pool field strength by 3, to account for the resistivity differences of blood and the myocardium. This is valid due to the uniform current density of this method, and the current continuity between the tissue and blood conductors.

[0038] In another embodiment, a sensor 18 is a pair of electrodes secured to a deflectable electrophysiology catheter. The sensor electrodes are introduced into the right ventricle. The deflectable catheter may be oriented until a maximum in field strength is measured between the electrodes. The orientation with maximum field strength occurs when the axis between the sensor electrodes aligns with the vector of the electric field. The vector of the electric field is coincident with the axis between the patch electrodes 14 and 16. The use of a deflectable catheter facilitates a one-time calibration of field strength as a function of drive current for a particular patient. The calibration may then be used in subsequent applications of the therapeutic method to the patient, without the need for further catheterization.

[0039] In yet another embodiment, sensor 18 is a pair of electrodes positioned on a trans-esophageal probe. The sensor electrodes are inserted through the esophagus to a position adjacent the patient's heart. The trans-esophageal probe is oriented with a first sensor electrode anterior, or facing the chest of the patient, and the second sensor electrode posterior, or facing the patient's back. The probe may be positioned in the cardiac region to make a field measurement, and as such obviates the need for more invasive catheterization.

[0040] In use, sensors 18 may be used to initially establish or to reestablish the depolarization threshold for a particular patient or alternatively, the threshold may be separately established in a clinical setting for example. To establish the threshold, the applied current may be incrementally changed in a clinical setting to determine the depolarization threshold for a particular patient's heart. This type of ‘threshold testing’ may emulate amplitude step-up and step-down protocols as will be recognized by those skilled in the art. The cardiac sensing will indicate ectopic or untoward stimulation. The identification of the ectopic or untoward stimulation will allow the therapeutic current amplitude and frequency to be set below stimulation threshold with sufficient safety margin. Furthermore, the resultant threshold field strength may be assessed. Continuous monitoring of the field strength after the initial therapeutic current level has been set will allow controller 20 to adjust the value during therapy. For example, if electrodes 14 and 16 are repositioned, or the patient adjusted his/her posture, the current density through the heart may change significantly, if the applied current remained constant. In an unmonitored situation, this could either pose a stimulation danger, or result in reduced therapy, but with the benefit of this invention, the applied current may be adjusted dynamically.

[0041] The present invention has been described in considerable detail in order to comply with the patent statutes and to provide those skilled in the art with the information needed to apply the novel principles and to construct and use such components to practice the invention. However, upon review of this disclosure, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with specifically different equipment and devices, and that various modifications, both to the apparatus and method, can be accomplished without departing from the scope of the present invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus for remodeling a heart, comprising: a first electrode positioned externally on a patient; a second electrode positioned externally on a patient; and a current generator electrically coupled to the first electrode and the second electrode, wherein the generator generates a current between the first electrode and the second electrode to confer a sub-threshold therapeutic stimulus on at least one of the heart and adjacent vasculature.
 2. An apparatus, claim 1, further comprising: at least one sensor; and a controller in communication with the sensor and regulating the current generator.
 3. An apparatus, as in claim 2, wherein the sensor monitors the depolarization of the heart and the controller synchronizes the sub-threshold therapeutic electrical stimulus from the current generator with a cycle of the heart.
 4. An apparatus, as in claim 3, wherein the controller synchronizes the sub-threshold therapeutic electrical stimulus with a refractory period of the cardiac cycle.
 5. An apparatus, as in claim 2, wherein the at least one sensor monitors the field strength in or near the heart generated between the first electrode and the second electrode and the controller maintains the sub-threshold therapeutic electrical stimulus from the current generator below a depolarization threshold of the heart.
 6. An apparatus, as in claim 1, wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is a patch electrode.
 7. An apparatus, as in claim 2, wherein the sensor is positioned externally on the patient.
 8. An apparatus, as in claim 2, wherein at least one of the sensor, the first electrode, and the second electrode is positioned within an esophagus of the patient.
 9. An apparatus, as in claim 2, wherein the sensor is implanted within the patient.
 10. An apparatus, as in claim 9, wherein the sensor is implanted within the heart.
 11. An apparatus, as in claim 2, further comprising a cardiac defibrillator.
 12. An apparatus, as in claim 2, further comprising a cardiac pacemaker.
 13. An apparatus for remodeling a heart, comprising: a first means for forming an electrical connection with a patient; a second means for forming an electrical connection with the patient; and a means for generating an electric current between the first means for forming an electrical connection and the second means for forming an electrical connection, wherein the means for generating an electric current generates a sub-threshold therapeutic stimulus passing between the first means for forming an electrical connection and the second means for forming an electrical connection to the heart of the patient.
 14. A method for providing cardiac therapy, comprising: sensing a cardiac cycle of a heart to determine a refractory period of the heart; and applying a stimulus to the heart during the refractory period, the heart positioned between a first external electrode and a second external electrode.
 15. A method, as in claim 14, further comprising applying a sub-threshold stimulus to the heart during a non-refractory period.
 16. A method, as in claim 15, further comprising measuring the field strength generated by applying the sub-threshold stimulus.
 17. A method for providing cardiac therapy, comprising: a step for sensing a cardiac cycle of a heart to determine a refractory period of the heart; and a step for applying a stimulus to the heart during the refractory period, the heart positioned between a first external electrode and a second external electrode.
 18. A method for providing cardiac therapy, comprising: applying a sub-threshold stimulus to the heart, the heart positioned between a first external electrode and a second external electrode; and measuring the field strength generated by applying the sub-threshold stimulus.
 19. A method, as in claim 18, further comprising adjusting at least one parameter of the sub-threshold stimulus to maintain the sub-threshold stimulus below a depolarization threshold of the heart.
 20. A method for providing cardiac therapy, comprising: a step for applying a sub-threshold stimulus to the heart; and a step for measuring the field strength generated by applying the sub-threshold stimulus. 